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African Americans Versus The Social
Sciences Essay, Research Paper
American
segregation was a bitter part of American history. Even worse,
though, are the securing reasons for the need of segregation and the
defense of the institution. I will be discussing the method in which
segregation came into existence in America and how the populace
advocated such a policy.
The issue of
segregation in America deals mostly with the idea of superiority and
inferiority between the black, or African, and white, or Caucasian,
races. There is a long history on what eventually became legal
segregation in the United States. I will begin by giving a short
synopsis of that history.
Immediately
after the Civil War many laws were enacted called black codes that
clashed with the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 and the Thirteenth
Amendment of 1865. They were enacted to resume control over the
social aspect of slavery that had been removed because of the outcome
of the war.
Under slavery,
control was best maintained by a large degree of physical contact and
association. Under the strange new order the old methods were not
always available or applicable, though the contacts and associations
they produced did not all disappear at once. To the dominant whites
it began to appear that the new order required a certain amount of
compulsory separation of the races.
The answer to
the “new order” was a separation of races in society. The black
codes were intended to control the new black freedom by requiring
certain practices. These practices would make sure that a black man
had a job. If he did not have a job then he would be fined and if the
fine could not be paid that black man would be sold into servitude to
pay off his fine. Blacks were refrained from working in certain
skilled working environments and could not carry firearms or testify
in court unless it was against another black. Poll taxes and the
“grandfather” clause were ways in which states would try to
arrest blacks from voting in elections. These black codes were very
successful.
To say the idea
of separating the races was a complete “white” idea would be
false. Even blacks had somewhat an idea that if they were not around
white people, they would not be beleaguered by the troubles. Another
view was that whites believed blacks wanted to associate with them.
The following excerpt is from a book about a mulatto man in the South
speaking about his ideas of the whites. “What I resented was their
impudent assumption that I wanted to mingle with them, their arrogant
and conceited pretense that no matter how depraved and degenerate
some of them might be, they, each and every one of them, was of a
superior breed.” Congressman Frank Clark gave a speech in Congress
in 1908 speaking about segregation laws. He began by declaring his
love for “that old Negro man.” The man who first took the
Congressman outside after his birth.
The question
raised by the amendment [to segregate street cars in Washington,
D.C.]…is purely a question of disposing of a situation in such a
manner as will lessen the friction between the races. The adoption of
that amendment will not discriminate against the Negro race, nor will
it inure to the advantage of the white race alone. It will inure to
the benefit of both races.”
The idea and
support of segregation of the races was two fold and was supported by
a minority population of both races.
Congress passed
the Civil Rights Act in 1875 ensuring that all men are equal and will
be given justice upon the law and the government. It was initially
vetoed by President Andrew Jackson, but was overridden by Congress.
In 1883, the United States Supreme Court will rule that the Civil
Rights Act of 1875 is unconstitutional stating that State governments
and not the Federal government should be the one to ensure equality
among its citizens. This led for the formation of Jim Crow laws to be
passed through many state governments.
Jim Crow laws
were legal segregation laws that banned the integration of the races
in certain establishments. Some states passed Jim Crow laws that
segregated restaurants, busses, railroads, streetcars, theatres, and
even hospital waiting rooms. This segregation ideal was also spread
to schools, parks, and even cemeteries in a push to prohibit any
contact between blacks and whites as equals. The President’s
Committee on Civil Rights (1950) gave a statement on their beliefs of
the Jim Crow laws. They hoped for the Supreme Court to deliver a new
verdict in the claims of the Civil Rights Acts. “No argument or
rationalization can alter this basic fact: a law which forbids a
group of American citizens to associate with other citizens in the
ordinary course of daily living creates inequality by imposing a
caste status on the minority group.” Of course this statement would
not occur until 1950 it still indicates the thought of inequality
that I will touch upon later in this piece.
Now that I have
established the method in which segregation laws came into being, let
me now turn to how many of these laws were defended. It is
interesting to see how many views and types of people can take on the
same idea of segregation based on their different backgrounds and
mores. I will begin first with legal and political defense and then I
will shift towards defense of segregation bases on science and
religion.
The Supreme
Court, in their ruling the unconstitutionality of the Civil Rights
Act of 1875, caused the state governments to conceive the Jim Crows
laws and make them legitimate. “The Supreme Court, asserting that
the adjustment of social relations of individuals was beyond the
power of Congress, declared the Civil Rights Act unconstitutional in
1883….Even though the law had seldom been enforced, its existence
was a symbol of the nation’s equalitarian aspirations, and its
nullification by the Supreme Court.” Abolitionists held the Civil
Rights Act of 1975 as a symbol for prosperous times ahead, but its
defeat only resulted in more negative legal decisions. There are
others that also add to the legal and political aspect of
segregation.
There have a
been a few United States Supreme Court decisions that have supported
the justification of segregation and slavery. One of the first
decisions delivered by the Supreme Court was Prigg versus
Pennsylvania, where in 1842, the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 was
reaffirmed by the Supreme Court. The Fugitive Slave Act was a piece
of legislation that allowed for the capture and return of runaway
slaves. Once captured, the slave was put on trial and the judge was
allowed to decide the status of the slave without a trial jury. It is
important to notice that the act was passed in 1793, but never
challenged until 1842.
Another Supreme
Court decision was the Dred Scott case in 1856. Dred Scott was a
slave that was transported from a slave state into a free territory.
When he was in the free territory he claimed that since he was in a
free territory he was, in fact, a free man. The lawsuit filed went to
the Supreme Court that decided that slaves were not citizens and that
they could not file a federal lawsuit. The court also decided that
Congress could not ban slavery in the United States territories or
its states, because slavery had to be decided by the state themselves
and not the Federal government. More importantly, this made Congress
powerless to create such legislation against slavery, but allowed
Southern states to go ahead and create laws that enforced slavery and
segregation. This decision is important in that the Supreme Court
decided that slaves, or blacks, were not citizens or even people.
Also, provisions made by Congress about whether a state would be a
free or slave state, such as the Missouri Compromise of 1820, were
now void and unconstitutional because Congress did not have the power
to pass such a decree.
The final case
that I will describe is known as the “separate but equal” case,
Plessy versus Ferguson, in 1896. By 1896, Jim Crow laws had become a
part of life in the South. Inflexible segregation laws had been
passed and now practiced in all public and private facilities. “The
Supreme Court insisted in 1896 that all Jim Crow facilities be equal,
but in practice the South, and the North also, ignored this dictum.
And the Negro had no redress. His loss of political power destroyed
his ability to influence public policy.” This decision caused the
creation of the “separate but equal” facilities throughout the
United States. Separate facilities were practiced in schools, in
railroads, in restaurants, and theatres. In the South, in areas where
interracial communities existed, states had to arrest its integration
policies for newly developed patterns of segregation. Earlier in this
paper, the President’s Committee on Civil Rights stated that
segregation laws promoted inequality and a caste social system. The
theme of segregation laws was white superiority. In the social system
blacks were inferior and did not have equality to life, liberty, and
property. Beittel writes that the “separate but equal” doctrine
is used to perpetuate segregation to a rational idea:
Segregation must
be distinguished from voluntary separation of a group…since it is
for the most part a one-sided program, enforced by one group against
another. Segregation is enforced on one group by another to emphasize
and attempt to make rational a belief in the superiority of one group
and the inferiority of another. In the United States white supremacy
and segregation are inseparably associated.
This stabilizes
the idea that with segregation there is an inescapable acceptance of
white supremacy. To have consent and to defend segregation, there
must be a means to defend white supremacy.
This next
section I will give some of the accounts of how people would defend
segregation and thus defend white supremacy. I will investigate
social scientific defense, general scientific defense and religious
defense of segregation.
Franz Boas poses
the following sociological question in The Mind of Primitive Man:
Have not most
races had the same chances for development? Why, then, did the white
race alone develop a civilization which is sweeping the whole world,
and compared with which all other civilizations appear as feeble
beginnings cut short in early childhood, or arrested and petrified at
an early stage of development? Is it not, to say the least, probable
that the race which attained the highest stage of civilization was
the most gifted one, and that those races which have remained at the
bottom of the scale were not capable of rising to higher levels?
He answers the
question of race civilization development by looking to ancient
civilizations of Europe and Africa. By using social Darwinist views,
Boas established that European whites were more civilized while their
African counterparts were less so. Taking this and putting it toward
modern standards results in the belief that in a certain amount of
time African blacks will become as civilized as European whites were
five hundred to a thousand years ago.
Count Arthur de
Gobineau, a French noble, tried to explain the reason why there is
such a large interval between the civilizations of the Africans to
that of the Europeans. He studied many of the civilizations that have
been successful and concluded that “all civilizations derive from
the white race, that none can exist without its help, and that a
society is great and brilliant only so far as it preserves the blood
of the noble group that created it.” Civilizations that “preserve
the blood” of Aryan’s will continue to prosper, but it is when
the blood is tainted that a degeneration occurs and the quality of
the blood and the civilization falters. A corollary to this idea is
one presented by Sir Francis Galton in which he believed “individual
and racial characteristics” were found to be “governed by the
laws of heredity” resulting in “inherited inferiority in one race
and superiority in another.” The Negro is considered primitive and
inferior by Galton and these characteristics are can only be
genetically transferred to kin. There is not a possibility to
associate the cultures of different races because there cannot be a
change based on education or environment. Galton argues that racial
culture and civilization cannot become better for the Negro because
his mental capacity would not allow him to understand the culture and
civilization of one better.
As one will see,
these ideas are not uncommon. Many ideas have been established
marking the African American as a savage animal that has yet to
become civilized, yet to adapt to his surroundings, and must be held
to these laws for his own good. Most of these ideas can be credited
to the Europeans. It was they who gave Americans many of the ideas
that represent the inferiority and degradation of Africans.
One of the most
predominant sociological theories of Negro inferiority is called the
race-climate hypothesis. This hypothesis stems from many theories of
many different scientists. The hypothesis was developed to prove that
evolution was the root of social inequality.
The hot and
stultifying climate of tropical Africa, its dense and humid jungles,
had halted Negro’s evolutionary development at primitive,
generalized levels. The invigorating and exacting climate of the
north temperate zone, however, had stimulated the Caucasian’s
development into advanced specialized channels. The result was a
fundamental difference in physical appearance, emotional stability,
and mental capacity.
The climate of
Africa caused its people to live primitively. The warmer weather than
that of the north helped the Africans to live without a predominant
shelter. Food was well provided by the environment. Clothing and
shelter were also provided if it was really needed. The ability to
survive was not much of a struggle. Organization of tribes was simple
while intellectual and spiritual progress was passive. Negroes in
Africa lived in an arrested development where impulsive instincts
were predominate over rational thoughts. In Europe, though, was a
wildly changing climate. Europeans had to use intelligence and logic
to find ways in which to survive. Food was not as sparse and
Europeans were forced to agrarian ways. Shelter for the Europeans had
to be developed since the environment did not provide such a means.
Charles Woodruff
used the race-climate hypothesis to verify the reason blacks were
inferior in America to whites. Woodruff used logic that he acquired
while serving as an army surgeon in the Philippines. He found that
“whites had difficulty adjusting to the heat and humidity, and
continued activity there often produced general debilitation. He
noticed no such reaction among Negroes.” Thus whites in America,
where the climate is moderately temperate, show signs of energy,
adaptiveness, and receptiveness. Blacks, on the other hand, are not
able to adapt well to the climate. They evolved in tropical climates
and were able to handle and work positively in the climate of the
Philippines. Woodruff predicted that blacks would probably be extinct
soon.
Scientific
racists convinced that evolution caused racial inequality looked to
heredity to further prove their claims. Hereditary biological racists
believe that the inferiority that blacks carry is innate; that they
are born with the characteristics that make them inferior. One theory
already stated was by Galton. Another was by a group of scientists
that hypothesized that the mental development and traits of blacks
were evolutionarily primitive and that no “ordinary environment can
alter the salient mental and moral traits in any measurable degree
from what they were predetermined to be through innate influences.”
Inherited traits could never be relinquished or mutated. This was
popular with racists because it gave justification for segregating
society. If they were apart then there would be no possibility of
intimate relations between races. Racial heredity theory was not a
big speculation but it was readily accepted by American laymen who
were racist.
Physical traits
were also a subject of the black race’s inferiority. White
characteristics have been, along with other speculation, used as the
standard in which all other traits are looked to. Measuring physical
inequality was much easier for scientific racists than discovering
mental or moral inequality. “The head is somewhat smaller than in
whites…if in addition the thicker scalp and thicker skull of the
male Negro are considered, then the probable size of the brain of the
Negro appears decidedly to a disadvantage.” This disadvantage must
come from the assumption that there is a direct correlation between
size of the brain and the mental capacity of the brain. The Negro
brain is smaller than the white brain, thus Negroes are less
intellectual than that of whites. The underdeveloped brain causes a
“lack of self-control, an absence of subjectivity, and an
incapacity for ethical and esthetic judgement. Among persons so
affected sudden ’sexual excitement, anger, or vexation’ could
cause a loss of self-control and a disregard for custom and good
taste.” The size of the smaller Negro brain shows how inferior
Negroes are.
The deficiencies
of the Negro brain can be blamed because “its physical growth” is
“halted abruptly at puberty.” Puberty is the moment in which the
Negro body and brain cease to develop. It seems odd to consider that
the brain will stop developing at such an early period in ones life,
preventing further enlargement and development of the intellectual
properties of the brain. At this stage the brain possesses the
process of perception, memory, and motor responses. It is after
puberty where critical thinking, comprehension of complex situations
and “ability to appreciate logical, aesthetic and moral situations”
occur. But even though mental processes could no longer be developed,
the Negro had sexual and animal instincts that developed and were not
harmed.
A Negro’s
inferiority does not reveal itself just in his low intelligence and
deficient brain size. His outward physical features also establish
his inferiority through racist ideas reinforced by Darwinism. “The
anatomy of the Negro exhibits a much closer approach to the
anthropoid apes than does any other race.” Here is another theory
that demonstrates how blacks are less civilized and developed than
any other race. These “scientists” tried to prove the theory by
relating each of the Negro’s physical traits to those of apes. They
determined that the hair of blacks relates closely to that of apes.
The mucous membranes in the mouth; gums, tongue, and lips, closely
resembled that of apes. Black skin pigmentation was, of course, used
to establish a closer comparison between the two. Cobb also
recognized the distinct characteristics of the sexual organs of
blacks of both sexes as more like apes than any other race. The arms
and legs of blacks were longer and slimmer than white’s indicating
a similarity to apes. Blacks were physically shorter than whites as
well.
Scientific
racists acquired all kinds of “scientific” evidence to make an
understanding of black inferiority. The point though was to establish
a line in which segregation and discrimination could be seen as
proper and legitimate. Unsophisticated Americans accepted most of the
theories stated here without protest. Mostly because they wanted to
believe such scientific reasoning would make segregation appropriate
and legal. “The scientists wanted only segregation, and a
benevolent segregation at that…” the scientists established Negro
inferiority and urged “that whites and Negroes be socially
segregated in order to remain biologically segregated.” Extreme
racists were still not happy and they felt that American policy
against immigration and blacks was misguided. In order to retrieve
more popularity for their movement, scientists turned to
intellectual-historical racism as a source of exploring topics and
evidence not yet discovered.
To get more
popularity for the movement, James Sayers tried to encourage the
white population to appreciate their own race and despise any mixing
of races. “His purpose was to inspire the whites to greater
appreciation of their racial heritage and thereby block the impending
amalgamation of the races.” By seizing the prevalent culture and
ideas of the unsophisticated white Americans, Sayers was able to
legitimize the Jim Crows laws of segregation.
Politicians also
used this movement to develop Jim Crow legislation through their own
racist motives. They accepted and promoted the ideas and evidence
provided by biologists, sociologists, anthropologists, and
historians. “It was not that Southern politicians needed any
support from learned circles to sustain their own doctrines, but they
found that such intellectual endorsement of their own racist theories
facilitated acceptance of their views and policies.” Southern
politicians used the opinions of scientists to help with the approval
of legislation of Jim Crow laws. The approval also helped in
legislating immigration which was one of the major concerns of
racists and isolationist Americans who wanted to segregate from the
rest of the world.
Disfranchisement
was applied to America to reconcile North and South differences after
the war. Disfranchisement developed literacy tests, poll tax,
property qualifications, grandfather clauses, and the good character
clause. “In part disfranchisement was also presented as a
progressive reform, the sure means of purging Southern elections of
the corruption that disgraced them.” Disfranchisement was pretty
successful in restraining blacks from voting. This process also
proceeded to cause violent cases on and before election days.
Thomas Dixon, a
minister, wrote many novels based on what he saw around him. In 1905
he wrote The Clansman, it “acquainted the American public with
ideas of historical and intellectual racism” and was the basis for
the motion picture entitled The Birth of a Nation. The novel
constructed the idea that blacks are immoral and corrupt beasts that
needed to be taken care of by any means be it segregation laws,
slaughtering them, or sending them back to Africa.
All historical
devices used by racists came down to one conclusion: the role of
blacks in American history was a negative impact upon the greatness
of America and the white race. These historical racists viewed
slavery as something that was positive for blacks. “When viewed in
this light, slavery was neither a convenience for whites, an
exploitation of Negroes, nor even a tyranny born of necessity.”
Slavery was, instead, a positive good that helped blacks live in
American society and took them away from the savagery that existed in
their home land of Africa. It presented slave owners the good feeling
of giving blacks the ability to give in to their primitive and savage
instincts.
Historical
racists used means in which to prove historically the inferiority of
the black race. They used white ethnocentrism to get whites to
appreciate their race and cause racism. Politicians used intellectual
ideology to produce legitimate legislation for immigration and
segregation. Disfranchisement was used to stop blacks from voting in
the South. Historical novels were written portraying blacks as
savages that needed to be civilized into the American culture.
Slavery was claimed to be useful and positive in civilizing blacks
and establishing the role of blacks in American history as an
inferior being compared to all others.
Religious racism
was also instituted to ensure that even under God, blacks were
inferior to all other beings. The scientific racism that has been
established was, for awhile, never obliterated by any churches in
America. It can be assumed that the churches in America supported the
expressions stated by scientists. Churches ignored the concepts that
were established by scientists to prove inferiority of blacks.
When churches
did finally establish a position, it did not support the equality of
blacks. The first concept of segregation supported by churches was
given by Reverend William Montgomery Brown who declared that the
races should not mix. “The object of racial policy, he said, is the
maintenance of racial purity among whites. Amalgamation must be
avoided at all costs because it thwarts God’s plan…the white man
was protected by a law of nature, ‘a deeply-rooted, God-implanted
instinct’ of racial prejudice…” God created the races different
for the purpose of white superiority. Sexual mingling between the
races would make a mockery of His creation. Reverend Brown believed
segregation was a good thing but he did not feel it was necessary to
create legislative laws to do so, because to believe that the races
were equal would be a sin.
It was believed
by many religious racists that the inequality that was present was by
the will of God. The beauty of this idea for racists was that there
was no real confirmation of it. God ordained the distinction of
certain races to be superior and others inferior. Racists believed
that God had created whites as the soul supreme being on earth. “God
has created in order that they may fulfill separate and distinct
missions in the cultivation and civilization of the world.” Such a
vague interpretation was accepted as clear evidence of black
inferiority. It was believed that the way in which current situations
had developed in America was a clear sign of the intentions of God.
God had predestined the role of races when he created them. Other
religionists needed clearer evidence of biblical authority of racial
inequality.
They tried
finding biblical authority by using the story that black inferiority
was a result of a curse provided by God towards blacks. God placed
the curse through Noah towards the descendants of Ham. The marks of
this curse were, of course, black skin, physical inferiority, and
mental incapacity. There was no escape of this curse. God’s rapture
and displeasure of them resulted in the inferiority and inequality of
the race. Blacks no longer had the hope or divine right to be worthy
of living in a white man’s civilization.
And yet, these
two ideas still have not elaborated on the role of God in creating
inequality of the races. They did not answer questions that were
asked of other races beyond white and black. Fundamental religion was
its own proof. These ideas influenced popular opinion and were
accepted as truths based on biblical authority and natural order.
Others, like
Congressman William Lankford, believed that the inequality of the
races and white superiority came from the moment God created man. God
created man in his own image; “a part of God himself; a Caucasian,
a white man, and God gave that first white man dominion over all
things, and told him to reach to the bottom of the sea and up to the
highest skies and understand and know the mysteries of all time and
space, and that first man, a white man, went forth to solve,
understand, conquer, and know the universe in which he had been
placed.” Lankford’s idea was accepted with the notion of black
skin being a curse. But they did not accept that the curse was from
descendants of Noah and thus Adam, the very first white man. They
justified the curse by stating that there was not any biblical
reference that blacks descended from Noah or Adam.
Extremists of
religious racism felt that blacks were not even humans and that God
created only white civilization. Charles Carroll was one of spokesman
of these extreme anti-Negro groups who used religion to promote his
hate and preference of segregation and inequality. “God had created
the Negro not as man, as Homo sapiens, but as an ape, the highest
apes to be sure, but an ape nevertheless. Adam (man), he declared,
had been created in the white image of God as the final act, the
crowning glory, of creation.” Carroll claimed that blacks were
pre-human animals while other races: American Indians, Mongolians,
and Malayans, who were also inhuman animals, developed as the
offspring of man’s “unholy mating with apes (Negroes). Carroll
was such an extremist that he tried rearranging the whole history of
the Bible to make his ideas more convincing. He claims the role of
the serpent in the Garden of Eden was actually a black man who
tempted Eve. He believes the interpretation in the Bible was
misinterpreted throughout the years. He asserted that this
misinterpretation answers many questions including how the “serpent”
spoke to Eve. “Responsibility for the fall of man, however, was
only the first of Negro’s sins.” Cain’s wife was black and
amalgamation of man and beat resulted in God’s intervention at
Sodom and Gomorrah and then the Flood. “At the time of the Flood,
Noah and his family were the only pure whites left on earth, so God
determined to eliminate the hordes of soulless mongrels and give man
a new opportunity. Among the beasts on the Ark, however, were a pair
of Negroes, and amalgamation commenced soon after the Flood.” God’s
final intervention was to send Jesus to redeem the world of
amalgamation. Carroll most likely only carried his thoughts to other
radicals and extremists, but it is possible that American racist
laymen also accepted these ideals as fact. It may also be a possible
ideology of the Ku Klux Klan who used Christian religion as a
fundamental element of their group. They could use the idea of a
white loving God and a black hating God as a suggestion for white
superiority and black inferiority. In terms of religious racism,
there is plenty of information provided to swerve the belief of
slavery as a “positive good”, segregation as the will of God, and
inequality as a work of God during Creation.
As I have
provided, there are many ideas and beliefs in which the laws of
segregation and inequality were favored. I have traced the path of
the creation of segregation through the black codes and the Jim Crow
laws throughout the states. I have also determined that the defense
of segregation came through many different points. The United States
Supreme Court made many influential decisions that resulted in
defending the motives of segregation and thus inequality of the
races. Social racism was used to promote white superiority by stating
that the black race has evolved more slowly, that their apparent
flaws are hereditary and cannot be escaped, and that the black race
is actually a savage animal. Scientific racism established the idea
the certain traits of the black race were inferior to the white race.
Scientists adopted the idea that blacks were mentally incompetent
because of their smaller skulls. They also believed that blacks were
animals because they resembled neoteric apes. Religious racists tried
to find a Biblical authority to prove white superiority and hence
black inferiority. They claimed that the inequality that was present
in society was the will of God and should not be tampered with.
Extremists pointed out that God did not want the mixing of the races
and intervened on world through punishment. They also claimed that
blacks were animals and that sexual relations with man (whites) was a
great sin. Another point extremists stated was the idea that a black
man was the one who tempted Eve and thus brought the fall of man.
It shall be
noted that these ideas were used to promote racist ideology and not
technically for the cause they were trying to perceive. I feel that
those arguing the standpoint of religion were not trying to please
God more than they were trying to please the racist people.
Scientists seemed asinine in their work finding the inferiority of
blacks through smaller skulls and brains rather than the capacity in
which that brain can hold. The United States Supreme Court is much
harder to determine. Their place is to proceed by upholding the
Constitution of the United States. Of course racial feelings could be
involved in their decisions but it can be clearly seen that they are
upholding the Constitution whether they believed segregation was
right or not. These ideas can and have been fought against with great
success. One of the great fighters against black mental deficiency
was W.E.B. DuBois, who wrote at great lengths about intelligent and
intellectual black people. African Americans have become a staple of
this country. There are business leaders, religious leaders,
teachers, administrators, and statesmen who have helped this country
become great and will continue to do so endlessly.
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